list of broken treaties with native american tribes

Under threat of military violence from the increasing numbers of white settler-colonists moving into Minnesota, the Dakota and Mendota were forced to cede millions of acres of land in the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota in exchange for reservations and $1,665,000the equivalent of about 7.5 cents per acre. While the act was framed as a peaceful and voluntary process, tribes that did not cooperate were made to comply through military force, cheated or tricked out of their land, or subjected to the violence of local white settlers. It essentially gave the US a lease to Guantanamo Bay as a coal and naval base for a nominal fee. It was then that Billy Tayac, a Piscataway salesman, first encountered the American Indian Movement. [14] Bellecourt, The Thunder Before the Storm, 126. The president never proclaimed the treaty, a necessary step that makes treaties official, and the U.S. adjusted the purchase price to $2,000. Microfilm publications of NARA records relating to American Indians, including records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, census rolls, and treaties relating to territories. Now, acting in solidarity with other tribes, Indians gained strength in numbers. TopTenz delivers with a collection of Top 10 Bizarre lists. In 1974, a group of seven farmers in China accidentally uncovered a 2,200-year-old Terracotta Army while digging a well for their village. Native American Treaties Now Online for the First Time 15 Chilling Folktales, Traditions, and Objects from Around the World The Washington Post/Getty Images. In 2016, water protectors and activists established a camp at Standing Rock to prevent the pipeline's construction, where they were subjected to attack dogs and other methods of excessive force by law enforcement. The Piscataway peoples had long since ceased to live as a people, as European and American colonization in the 17th and 18th century had disrupted and dispersed tribal organizations. In 1964 SAIA, led by Hank Adams, began organizing fish-ins after the state of Washington refused to recognize the treaty-protected right of Pacific Northwest tribes to fish in ancestral waters. You may also like: A history of police violence in America. Concluded during the nearly 100-year period from the Revolutionary War to the aftermath of the Civil War, some 368 treaties would define the relationship between the United States and Native Americans for centuries to come. But after gold was discovered in the Black Hills, miners and settlers began moving onto the land en masse. The takeover of Alcatraz the following year mobilized Native Americans across the country, and influenced the direction of AIMs work. The era of Red Power had begun. Not long after, Harrison led an attack on a camp of followers of Tenkswatawa, the Shawnee Prophet, and Tecumseh, who resisted the encroachment of white settlers on the Ohio Valley Nations. hide caption. I was proud to have been a part of this. HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. 5 East Timor. Major newspaper headlines from the year you were born, Biggest Native American tribes in the U.S. today, Stories behind the Trail of Tears for every state it passed through, 20 influential Indigenous Americans you might not know about, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/?ref=chooser-v1. How Many American Indian Treaties Were Broken? - History Violations Against Native Americans | ipl.org East Timor is one of the world's most decidedly unlucky countries. Bizarre. ", A museum visitor views wampum belts, fans and other diplomatic tools used during the treaty-making process. In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled the Black Hills should still be Native land. On July 9, 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its decision McGirt v. Oklahoma, a case to determine whether Oklahoma . Suzan Shown Harjo points to a signature on Treaty K at the National Archives. People spoke of children being. Inspired by the Civil Rights Movement at home and the Third World Movements abroad, newly empowered and organized Native Americans embarked on a new campaign for Native American Rights in 1972. But they quickly became interested in federal Indian policy as they recognized that policy as the root of Indian issues. Nevertheless, settlers and the U.S. military violated the treaty and invaded Lakota lands. "The answer is always gold," she says. Native American History Timeline [9] But in the fall of 1972, the objectives laid out in the Twenty Points plan were overshadowed by the events that unfolded after the caravans arrival in Washington. California lawmakers pressured the U.S. Senate not to ratify the treaties, which promised reservation land to the Native American nations. Explains that the trail of broken treaties, led by the aim, was a march upon washington d.c. in which several different native american groups laid out 20 points of demands. However, the Dakota and Mendota never received either provision. The American Indian Movement: The Trail Of Broken Treaties Mustafa Aydn, ar Erhan and Gkhan Erdem, United States Declaration of Independence, Deed in Trust from Three of the Five Nations of Indians to the Chancellor, Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States France), Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States Sweden), Treaty of Amity and Commerce (PrussiaUnited States), Convention of 1800 (Treaty of Mortefontaine), SiameseAmerican Treaty of Amity and Commerce, HawaiianAmerican Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation, California Indian Reservations and Cessions, Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United StatesJapan), Ottoman-American Treaty of Commerce and Navigation, Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, Treaty between Spain and the United States for Cession of Outlying Islands of the Philippines, CubanAmerican Treaty of Relations (1903), Inter-American Convention Establishing the Status of Naturalized Citizens Who Again Take Up Residence in the Country of Their Origin, North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911, Convention Between the United States and Great Britain, s:United States Cuban Agreements and Treaty of 1934. The Trail of Broken Treaties also marked a new beginning for Native peoples for whom Washington, D.C. was their ancestral homeland. In the Treaty of Fort Wayne, the Potawatomi, Delaware, Miami, and Eel River tribes ceded 2.5 million acres of their lands in present-day Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio for roughly 2 cents an acre, under pressure from William Henry Harrison, the then-governor of Indiana. It also promised an annual payment by the United States to the Haudenosaunee of $4,500 in goods, including calico cloth. Despite these terms, the encroachment of white settlers onto treaty territory was already underway, and future treaties would shrink Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw lands even further. The McGirt Case Is a Historic Win for Tribes - The Atlantic For thousands of years, more than 60 Native American tribes lived in Oregon's diverse environmental regions. C.. As pioneers pushed into the Pacific Northwest in the 1800s, the U.S. government used treaties to acquire Indian lands and clear the way for settlement. "Broken Treaties" introduces viewers to Oregon's Native American tribes and explores a thread of the Oregon story that hasn't been told very well over the years. Congress has ratified more than 370 treaties with Native nationstreaties that the United States Constitution describes as the "supreme Law of the Land." But it has broken just about every . The document will be on display in 2016 at the Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian for an exhibit on treaties curated by Harjo. distribution partner, email us at After negotiations with a White House aide failed, the demonstrators unfurled a banner that read NATIVE AMERICAN EMBASSY. The occupation had begun. "The physical treaty, like all things, will eventually fade," Gover says. The ambitions of the Trails organizers began unraveling almost immediately upon the caravans arrival in Washington, D.C. on November 2, 1972. Despite this sentiment, white settlers were already moving onto the lands designated for the Cherokee, leading to more conflict and the Treaty of Holston (1791), in which the Cherokee forfeited still more land. Paul Morigi/AP In 1835, U.S. government met with a group of Cherokee representatives at New Echota, Georgia, to sign a treaty that traded all 7 million acres of Cherokee land for $5 million and land in Indian Territory. But many Piscataway families had persisted in the region, bearing their traditions through the generations. The Shawnee, Delaware, Miami, Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi Nations banded together as the Northwestern Confederacy and assembled an armed resistance to prevent further colonization. Kevin Gover, director of the National Museum of the American Indian, stands inside the "Nation to Nation" exhibit. They aren't just the Indians' treaties," she says. It was a series of 8,000 sculptures that had been buried alongside a grand tomb. [2] Towns at the northern border also have relations within reservations within South Dakota. Conflicts over the U.S.s illegal usage of Sioux lands outlined in the Fort Laramie Treaty are ongoing. And if it's not, go right through the metal chart. But their territory has been cut down over the years. She has been a frequent contributor to History.com since 2005, and is the author of Breaking History: Vanished! Before the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776, the sovereign of the United Kingdom and the leaders of various North American colonies negotiated treaties that affected the territory of what would later become the United States. Sino-American Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China, Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, Convention on International Civil Aviation, International Civil Aviation Organization, Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of America and the Republic of China, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights (United StatesIran), Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, Treaty of Amity and Economic Relations (ThailandUnited States), International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (1978), Cook IslandsUnited States Maritime Boundary Treaty, Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or Between International Organizations, United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, United Nations Convention Against Torture, Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement, U.S.Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement, CrownIndigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Additional article to the Treaty with the Cherokee, Agreement with the Five Nations of Indians, Relinquishment of land to the United States by the Eel-Rivers, Wyandots, Piankeshaws, Kaskaskias, and Kickapoos, Elucidation of the convention with the Cherokees of January 7, 1806. Viewing American Indian Treaties | National Archives Please check your entries and try again. As more white settlers moved west into the Great Lake region, a Native American confederacy including the Shawnee and Delaware, who had already been driven westward by U.S. expansion, as well as the Miami, Ottawa, Ojibwa and Potawatomi, mounted an armed resistance beginning in the late 1780s. October 1540: De Soto and the Spaniards plan to rendezvous with ships in Alabama when they're attacked by Native Americans. Treaty With the Potawatami, 1832. In 1794, a large contingent of the U.S. military, led by General Mad Anthony Wayne, was tasked with putting an end to the Northwestern Confederacys resistance. But despite the Courts ruling inWorcester v. Georgia(1832) that the Cherokee and other tribes were sovereign nations, the removal continued. Tecumseh and others argued that the treatys signers had no authority to sell the land and warned Americans not to settle there. In the years following the Revolutionary War, Andrew Pickens and other commissioners of the new U.S. government concludedthree highly similar treatieswith the Cherokee, Choctaw and Cherokee Nations at Hopewell, Pickens plantation home in northwestern South Carolina. In other words, any treaty made between the U.S. and Native American tribes could be broken by Congress, rendering treaties essentially powerless. This is mostly to distinguish them from the next category. Stacker distribution partners receive a license to all Stacker stories, The treaties were based on the fundamental idea that each tribe was an independent nation, with their own right to self-determination and self-rule. On October 6, 1972, three caravans departed from Seattle, San Francisco and Los Angeles. Marie, Treaty with the Chippewa of Saginaw, Swan Creek and Black River, Treaty with the Blackfeet and other tribes, List of treaties of the Confederate States of America, List of treaties unsigned or unratified by the United States, "Treaty Between the English and the Powhatan Indians, October 1646", The Great Treaty of 1722 Between the Five Nations, the Mahicans, and the Colonies of New York, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, Milestones: 17761783: The Model Treaty, 1776, Journals of the Continental Congress --THURSDAY, JANUARY 23, 1783, Treaty between the King of Prussia and the United States of America. The representatives from the U.S. government who negotiated the treaty tricked the Dakota representatives into signing a third document, which reallocated the funds meant for the Dakota and Mendota to traders to fulfill invented debts. The U.S. Senate further violated the treaty by eliminating the provision for reservations. Prior to the Trails arrival in November of 1972, an advance party went to the capital to set up an AIM office and prepare for the caravans arrival. However, it was mutually agreed that the Ojibwe would be able to continue hunting and fishing on ceded territory. The Struggle for Sovereignty: American Indian Activism in the Nations Capital, 1968-1978. The official responsible for negotiating with the Native Americans was Isaac Ingalls Stevens, the governor of the Washington Territory. First exploited and colonized by Portugal, the islanders fought valiantly for their independence and were finally granted it in 1975 after the Portuguese Revolution. Native resistance to the treatys violation culminated in theBattle of the Little Bighornin 1876, after which government troops flooded the region. In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled that the Black Hills were illegally confiscated, and awarded the Sioux more than $100 million in reparations. Though many Potawatomi tried to stay, in 1938, the U.S. government enforced their removal by way of a 660-mile forced march from Indiana to Kansas. Paul Morigi/AP It established new solidarity among tribes across the country, bringing Native Americans together in numbers more powerful than ever. In September 1778, representatives of the newly formed Continental Congress signed a treaty with the Lenape (Delaware) at Fort Pitt, Pennsylvania. As a society we love to hear about the weird, the odd and the bizarre. Broken US-Indigenous Treaties: A Timeline | Stacker This new treaty also created the Leech Lake and Mille Lacs Reservations and allotted reservation land to individual families. An estimated 10 to 25 percent of Cherokee would dieduring the 1,200-mile trek to Oklahoma, later known as the Trail of Tears.. For most of American history, tribal governments tended to deal with the government on a one-to-one basis. The organizers had planned meetings with several government officials and hoped to deliver the Twenty Points proposal directly to President Nixon. From 1778 to 1871, the United States signed some 368 treaties with various Indigenous people across the North American continent. An estimated 10 to 25 percent of Cherokee would die. Among the demonstrators were many who had fought for the United States in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. Galvanized by the Alcatraz occupation and the growing movement across the nation, the American Indian Movement mobilized to bring confrontation politics to the nations capital. [7] Deloria, Behind the Trail of Broken Treaties, 48. "The people who are citizens of the U.S., these are your treaties. U.S. Government To Pay $492 Million To 17 American Indian Tribes The treaty restored more than 1 million acres of land to the Seneca that had been ceded by treaty 10 years earlier and recognized the sovereignty of the Six Nations to govern themselves and set laws. Treaty With the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache; October 21, 1867. Responding to demands from Native American rights organizations like the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), in 1968 President Lyndon B. Johnson called for Indian self-determinationa new federal stance that would end termination and promote equal access to economic opportunity for Native Americans. Photo by Paul Schmick. The Lenape (Delaware) were already being forced from their ancestral homelands in New York City, the lower Hudson Valley, and much of New Jersey when the Dutch settled there in the 17th century. Dakota and Ojibwe people were promised everlasting possession of their reservation lands. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Hank Adams, together with Dennis Banks and Russell Means of AIM, assembled eight Native organizations, including AIM, the Indians of All Tribes, the National Indian Youth Council, and others to bring their grievances directly to the government in the Trail of Broken Treaties. Concluded during the nearly 100-year period from the Revolutionary War to the aftermath of the Civil War, some 368 treaties would define the relationship between the United States and Native Americans for centuries to come. In doing so, the U.S. attempted to subvert the Ojibwe's traditional relationship with the land by instating a system of private property, as well as forcing the Ojibwe people to become farmers, a departure from their historical lifestyle of hunting, fishing, and gathering. Tecumseh and others argued that the treatys signers had no authority to sell the land and warned Americans not to settle there. Still, it wasnt long before the U.S. broke this treaty. [4] Clyde Bellecourt, The Thunder Before the Storm: The Autobiography of Clyde Bellecourt (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2016), 94. The form of these agreements was nearly identical to the Treaty of Paris ending the Revolutionary War between the U.S. and Great Britain. By that time, Congress had ended the nearly 100-year-old practice of making treaties with individual Native American tribes, declaring in 1871 that henceforth, no Indian nation or tribeshall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty.. Treaty with the Apache, July 1, 1852. In 1832, the Potawatomi Nation signed a peace treaty with the U.S. ensuring the Potawatomi peoples safety on their reservations in Indiana. By 1972, years of Native American activism had brought about the end of the disastrous policy of termination. I am a member of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe and the Executive Director of the SRHA. The Oregon Donation Land Act was passed in 1850, offering 320-acre parcels to thousands of white immigrants. According to its interim report: "The Commission heard of discipline crossing into abuse: of boys being beaten like men, of girls being whipped for running away. After the American victory, more and more white settlers moved onto Lenape territory, until the Treaty of Greeneville in 1795 forced them and other Ohio Country Native Americans to surrender most of their lands. "No one gave us anything. Controversy continues over the sacred landas well as other broken treaties. To that end, most Stacker stories are freely available to Broken Treaties With Native American Tribes: Timeline PDF Standing Rock Housing Authority Testimony on Fiscal Year 2024 Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes and Iowas. As long as the United States has negotiated treaties with Indigenous nations, it has broken those treaties. The new direct-action tactics, moreover, brought Native American issues to the center of American politics. "And if it's not gold, it's silver. Of the nearly 370 treaties negotiated between the U.S. and tribal leaders, Stacker has compiled a list of 15 broken treaties negotiated between 1777 and 1868 using news, archival documents, and Indigenous and governmental historical reports. Of the nearly 370 treaties negotiated between the U.S. and tribal leaders, Stacker has compiled a list of 15 broken treaties negotiated between 1777 and 1868 using news, archival documents, and Indigenous and governmental historical reports. The violence spurred by this attack persisted into the War of 1812. In 1957, two sisters, Joanna, 11, and Jacqueline, 6, Pollock were killed in a tragic car accident. Broken US-Indigenous treaties: A timeline - Midland Daily News Even more bizarre was the fact that the lease was indefinite, giving the United States the opportunity to use the area . Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi and Lake Superior, Treaty with the Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians. Pike met with a group of Dakota leaders, who allegedly ceded 100,000 acres of land to build a fort and promote U.S. trade in exchange for an unspecified amount of money. [3] Vine Deloria, Jr., Behind the Trail of Broken Treaties: An Indian Declaration of Independence (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974), 27. Adding insult to injury, the National Park Service denied AIMs request to hold a ceremony at Arlington Ridge Park, where Pima Indian Ira Hayes is memorialized in the United States Marine Corps War Memorial. Sioux leadersrejected the payment, saying the land had never been for sale. The light-blue pages of Treaty K are signed without ratifying seals or ribbons like 17 other unratified treaties signed by representatives of the U.S. government and Native American nations in California during the Gold Rush. The demonstrators acted quickly to barricade the doors with furniture. After U.S. troops under General Mad Anthony Wayne defeated them in the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Miami chief Little Turtle and other Native leaders ceded large parts of what would become Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin in the Greeneville Treaty. President Andrew Jackson had long been a violent proponent of the forced relocation of Indigenous tribes from the southeast to western areas, leading military efforts against the Creek Nation in 1814 and negotiating many treaties which dispossessed tribes of their lands. This civilizational. The treaty was soon broken, however, by white settlers who continued to expand their reach into treaty lands. The Treaty of Hopewell includes three treaties signed by the U.S. and the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw Nations at General Andrew Pickens plantation following the Revolutionary War. USA.gov, The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration More than two centuries later, the U.S. has kept one promise. The 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty defined the territory of the Great Sioux Nation (Dakotas, Lakotas, and Nakotas) in North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana, in exchange for the creation of roads and railways and the promise of the U.S. to protect the Sioux from American citizens. Can you guess which country these real 'Jeopardy!' The Trail of Broken Treaties was the product of years of grassroots organizing among Native American activists. hide caption. Despite the Supreme Courts reaffirmation of the Ojibwes hunting and gathering rights on ancestral lands in 1999, conflicts over the use of these lands, including for pipeline development, are ongoing. The state of Washington had imposed restrictions on the amount and type of fishing that could take place in its waters. Following the passage of the Indian Removal Act, facing tremendous pressure to move west, a small group of Cherokees not authorized to act on behalf of the Cherokee people negotiated the Treaty of New Echota. We had to take control, occupy, and fight-whatever it took to bring our grievances to the forefront.[4] No longer would Native issues be pushed to the margins. This was our land. Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi, Treaty with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, Treaty with the SiouxBrule, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, and Santeeand Arapaho, Treaty with the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Arapaho, Treaty with the Navajo Indians; Navajo Treaty of 1868; Bosque Redondo Treaty; Treaty of Hweldi, Treaty with the Eastern Band Shoshoni and Bannock, San Pasqual and Pala Valley Mission Indians, United States Code Title 25, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1, Section 71, Methow, Okanagan, Kootenay, Pend d'Oreille, Colville, North Spokane, San Poeil, Ottawa of Blanchards Fork and Roche de Boeuf, Omaha, Pawnee, Oto, Missouri, and Sac and Fox of the Missouri, Agreement with the Sisseton and Wahpeton Bands of Sioux Indians, Amended Agreement with Certain Sioux Indians, Gros Ventre, Piegan, Blood, Blackfoot, River Crow, Agreement 23 June 1874 confirmed, Eastern Shawnee lands to Modoc, Missin Indians (Portrero [Rincon, Gapich, LaJolla], Cahuila, Capitan Grande, Santa Ysabel [Mesa Grande], Pala, Agua Caliente, Sycuan, Inaja, Cosmit), Gros Ventre, Piegan, Blood, Blackfoot, and River Crow, Agreement with the Sioux of Various Tribes, Agreement Between the Turtle Mountain Indians and the Commission, Agreement Between the Red Lake Indians and the Commission, Turtle Mountain Chippewa Treaty; 10-cent Treaty; Agreement with the Turtle Mountain Band, amended and ratified, 1815 Commercial treaty with Great Britain Established free trade between the, 1951 Treaty of Security between the United States and Japan (updated 1960), 1954 U.S. and Japan Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement, 1962 Joint Declaration on Commercial Relations (with the, 1978 - Treaty on maritime boundaries between the United Mexican States and the United States of America, This page was last edited on 24 April 2023, at 16:54. clues are about? In 2018, the Rosebud Sioux Tribe and the Fort Belknap Indian Community sued the Trump administration for violations concerning the permitting of the Keystone XL Pipeline, which was shut down in June 2021. The demonstrators went to the BIA, seeking assistance in obtaining better lodging. It also called for attention to crises in health, housing, and education in both rural and urban Indian communities. The U.S. government has agreed to pay a total of $492 million to 17 American Indian tribes for mismanaging natural resources and other tribal assets, according to . (Lyons Press, 2017), which chronicles some of history's most famous disappearances. your CMS. Pre-existing treaties were grandfathered, and further agreements were made under domestic law. [emailprotected]. In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled that the Black Hills were illegally confiscated, and awarded the Sioux more than $100 million in reparations. [5] This belief, however, is a symptom of the historical amnesia that continues to relegate present-day Indigenous rights issues to the margins. As a part of the United States treaty and trust responsibilities to provide housing for Indian tribes it is critical for the Subcommittee to hear directly from the SRHA and other tribal housing . Concluded during the nearly 100-year period from theRevolutionary Warto the aftermath of theCivil War, some 368 treaties would define the relationship between the United States and Native Americans for centuries to come. To publish, simply grab the HTML code or text to the left and paste into Consciously modeled on the sit-ins in the American South, the fish-ins triggered a wave of resistance across the Northwest and the nation.

Basketball Teams In Aurora, Articles L